POSTLUDE: Fundamentals of Music (Review – From “Open Music Theory”)
35 Seventh Chords
Chelsey Hamm
Key Takeaways
- A seventh chord is a four-note chord whose notes can be arranged in thirds. A seventh chord can always be “stacked” so that its notes are either on all lines or all spaces.
- When a seventh chord is stacked in thirds, the lowest note is called the root, the lower middle note is called the third, the upper middle note is called the fifth, and the highest note is called the seventh, which is sometimes called the “chordal” seventh to distinguish it from the seventh scale degree.
- There are five common qualities of seventh chord. These qualities are the major-major seventh chord, major-minor seventh chord, minor-minor seventh chord, half-diminished seventh chord, and fully diminished seventh chord.
- There is another common way of naming seventh chords: the major-major seventh chord is also often called the major seventh chord, the major-minor seventh chord is also often called the dominant seventh chord, the minor-minor seventh chord is also often called the minor seventh chord, and the fully diminished seventh chord is also often simply called the diminished seventh chord.
- Within major and minor keys, seventh chords have particular qualities that correspond to scale degrees. These are the same in every major and minor key, which makes memorizing them useful.
- Seventh chords are identified by their root, quality of triad and seventh, and inversion.
In this chapter, we will focus on seventh chords: four-note chords whose notes can be stacked into thirds.
Seventh Chords
Like triads, the notes of a seventh chord can always be arranged in thirds, on adjacent lines or spaces of the staff. If a triad in closed spacing looks like a snowperson, then a seventh chord in closed spacing (as in the second measure of Example 1) looks like an extra-long snowperson, with a bottom, two middles, and a head.
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Example 1. A seventh chord written melodically and harmonically.
Like in a triad, the lowest note of a seventh chord stacked in closed spacing is called the root, and the other notes are named for their generic intervals above the root, as shown in Example 2: the third, the fifth, and the seventh.
Seventh Chord Qualities and Nomenclature
Example 3 lists the five most common qualities of seventh chord: major-major, major-minor, minor-minor, half-diminished, and fully diminished. These qualities are determined by two factors:
- The quality of the triad created by the root, third, and fifth (shown in the second column)
- The quality of the seventh from the root to the seventh (shown in the third column)
A chord symbol for a seventh chord begins with the letter name of the triad’s root followed by an indication of the quality of its triad and seventh. Examples of chord symbols for different seventh chord qualities are given in the last column of Example 3.[1]
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Example 3. Summary of nomenclature for different qualities of seventh chord.
For the first three qualities of seventh chord, the first word describes the quality of the triad, and the second word describes the quality of the seventh:
- major-major seventh chord = major triad + major seventh
- major-minor seventh chord = major triad + minor seventh
- minor-minor seventh chord = minor triad + minor seventh
The other two qualities are both built on diminished triads but differ in the quality of the seventh:
- half-diminished seventh chord (diminished triad, minor seventh)
- fully diminished seventh chord (diminished triad, diminished seventh)
Music theorists often use the names described above, but there is also another common way of naming these chords, given in parentheses in the first column of Example 3:
- The major-major seventh chord is also often called the major seventh chord.
- The major-minor seventh chord is also often called the dominant seventh chord.
- The minor-minor seventh chord is also often called the minor seventh chord.
- The fully diminished seventh chord is also often simply called the diminished seventh chord.
- The half-diminished seventh chord does not typically have an alternate name.
Your instructor may have you label these chords using one set of terminology or the other, or a mix of both.
Example 4 summarizes all this information in music notation.
https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/6850641/embed
Example 4. The qualities of sevenths and triads in various seventh chord types.
Don’t forget that when the root of a seventh chord has an accidental, you add that accidental into its name. For example, B♭mi7 is the chord symbol for a seventh chord with a B♭ minor triad and a minor seventh. Likewise, a G♯ma7 is the chord symbol for a seventh chord with a G♯ major triad and a major seventh.
In chord-symbol notation, if a pitch class other than the chord’s root is the lowest note in a seventh chord, then a slash is added, followed by a capital letter denoting the pitch class in the bass (lowest) voice. Example 5 shows a G half-diminished seventh chord (G∅7). In the first measure, the chord appears in first position; in the second measure, the chord’s seventh (F) is in the bass voice, so the chord symbol is written as G∅7/F. This topic will be explored more in the chapter Inversion and Figured Bass.
https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/6843772/embed
Example 5. Two seventh chords.
Listening to Seventh Chords
Listen carefully to the different qualities of seventh chord in Example 4. It is common to pair expressive qualities with seventh chords when learning what they sound like. You might think of major-major seventh chords as sounding “happy and jazzy,” major-minor seventh chords as sounding “unresolved” (like they strongly need to move to another chord), minor-minor seventh chords as “sad and jazzy,” half-diminished seventh chords as “scary and jazzy,” and fully diminished seventh chords as “very scary.”
Seventh Chord Qualities in Major and Minor
Seventh chords can be built on any note of the major scale. As you can see in Example 6, which is in the key of G major, seventh chords built on do 
and fa 
have a major triad and a major seventh, while seventh chords built on sol 
have a a major triad and a minor seventh (a dominant seventh chord). Seventh chords built on re, mi, and la 
and 
have a minor triad and a minor seventh, while seventh chords built on ti 
are half-diminished—they have a diminished triad and a minor seventh. These seventh chord qualities do not change in different keys; consequently, memorizing these qualities can be very useful.
https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/8514077/embed
Example 6. Qualities of seventh chords in major keys.
Seventh chords can also be built on any note of the minor scale. Example 7, which is in the key of G minor, contains only one seventh chord built on sol and one on ti . It is common for these seventh chords to contain the raised leading tone—ti instead of te 
instead of 
. In Example 7, seventh chords built on do and fa 
and 
have a minor triad and a minor seventh, while seventh chords build on sol with the raised leading tone have a major triad and a minor seventh (a dominant seventh chord). Seventh chords built on me and le 
and 
have a major triad and a major seventh, while those built on re 
are half-diminished (containing a diminished triad and a minor seventh), and those built on ti are fully diminished (containing a diminished triad and a diminished seventh).
https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/6843776/embed
Example 8. Qualities of seventh chords in minor keys.
Spelling Seventh Chords
To build a seventh chord from a chord symbol, you need to be aware of its root and quality—inversion is discussed in the next chapter, titled Inversion and Figured Bass. The steps for spelling a seventh chord are similar to the steps for drawing a triad. Let’s start with spelling a major-major seventh chord:
- Draw the root on the staff.
- Draw notes a third, fifth, and seventh above the root (i.e., draw an “extra-long” snowperson).
- Think of (or write down) the major key signature of the triad’s root.
- Write any accidentals from the key signature that apply to the notes in the chord, creating a major triad and a major seventh.
For any other quality of seventh chord, add additional accidentals to alter the chord’s third, fifth, and/or seventh when appropriate.
Example 8 shows this process for a D major-major seventh chord (Dma7):
- The note D, the chord’s root, is drawn on the staff.
- An extra-long snowperson is drawn—an F, A, and C, the notes a generic third, fifth, and seventh above the D.
- The key signature of D major has been recalled. D major has two sharps, F♯ and C♯.
- Sharps (♯) have been added to the left of the F and the C, because F♯ and C♯ are in the key signature of D major.
The quality of the next chord will require us to write additional accidentals, so the process has a couple more steps. Example 9 shows the process for an A♭ fully diminished seventh chord (A♭o7):
- The note A♭ is written because it is the root of the triad.
- An extra-long snowperson is drawn: C, E, and G are added because they are a generic third, fifth, and seventh, respectively, above A♭.
- The key signature of A♭ major is recalled. A♭ major has four flats: B♭, E♭, A♭, and D♭.
- E♭ is added, because it is in the key signature of A♭ major.
- We have now followed the process to spell a major-major seventh chord, but we want a fully diminished seventh chord, which means adding accidentals that are not in the key signature of A♭ major:
- C and E♭ are lowered by a half step to C♭ and E𝄫 to change the triad from major to diminished.
- To change the chord’s seventh from major to diminished, it needs to be lowered by two half steps, from G to G𝄫.
Following these steps is a reliable way for beginners to spell seventh chords, but it’s a time-consuming process. If you practice playing all of the qualities of seventh chords on an instrument until you are fluent in them, your knowledge of these notes will become more automatic without using this process.
Identifying Seventh Chords, Doubling, and Spacing
Like triads, seventh chords are also identified according to their root, quality, and inversion; inversion is discussed in the Inversion and Figured Bass chapter, so the examples here will be in root position.
- Identify and write its root.
- Imagine the major key signature of its root.
- Identify and write its quality of its triad.
- Identify and write its quality of its seventh.
Example 10 shows a seventh chord in root position for the process of identification.
https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/6843785/s/Ml4Mxs/embed
Example 10. A seventh chord in root position for identification.
To identify this seventh chord:
- Because the chord is in root position, the root is the lowest note, C♯.
- The key of C♯ major has seven sharps (every note is sharp). E and G would be sharp in the key of C♯ major, but we see that both of those notes are natural instead—lowered by a half step—making the triad diminished.
- The chord’s seventh, B, would also be sharp in C♯ major, but it is natural here. When a major seventh is made a half step smaller, it becomes a minor seventh.
- A diminished triad and a minor seventh form a half-diminished seventh chord; therefore, this is a C♯ half-diminished seventh chord (C♯∅7).
If the bottom note of a seventh chord has an imaginary key signature (because there is a double accidental that applies to it), use enharmonic equivalence to respell the seventh chord, following the process outlined in the last section of the Intervals chapter.
Like with triads, a seventh chord’s identification is not affected by the doubling of notes or open spacing of notes (even across multiple clefs). Example 11 shows two different seventh chords in [pb_glossary open spacing with doublings. Simply imagine or write the notes of seventh chords in closed spacing without any doublings to identify these chords, as we did previously.
https://musescore.com/user/32728834/scores/6843788/embed
Example 11. Two seventh chords with doublings in open spacing.
- Seventh Chords (musictheory.net)
- Understanding Seventh Chords in Music (Hello Music Theory)
- Introduction to Seventh Chords (Robert Hutchinson)
- Seventh Chords (Kaitlin Bove)
- Seventh Chords (Music Theory Academy)
- Seventh Chords (Carleton College)
- Seventh Chords For Dummies (YouTube)
- Seventh Chords – Music Theory Crash Course (YouTube)
- Seventh Chord Ear Training (teoria)
- Chord Ear Training (musictheory.net)
- Chord Ear Training (Tone Savvy)
- Seventh Chord Construction (.pdf, .pdf), p. 1 .pdf)
- Constructing and Identifying Seventh Chords (.pdf)
- Identifying Root Position Diatonic Seventh Chords, Major, p.1 (.pdf)
- Identifying Root Position Diatonic Seventh Chords, Minor, p.1 (.pdf)
- Seventh Chords Assignment #1 (.pdf, .mcsz)
- Seventh Chords Assignment #2 (.pdf, .mcsz)
- Seventh Chords Assignment #3 (.pdf, .mcsz)
- These chord symbols reflect those used in Open Music Theory, but you may come across others in your studies. See Chord Symbols for a more thorough explanation of these variations. ↵
First Steps: Modulation
What is "modulation"? Quite simply, it is the alteration or change of something from one state to another. The term is used in many contexts but in music, the term is used specifically when the music changes mode, often accompanied by a requisite change of tonal/modal center. In fact, the root prefix in the word modulation is mode. Therefore think of modulation as a modal change. However, it is not enough to simply change the mode of a piece or song. In order for modulation to be, in fact, modulation, the composer must establish this new mode/key in the music. Thus, modulation is differentiated by other musical events, such as chord substitutions and modal interchange, that also involve changes of mode. In these cases, the borrowed material is not established firmly and is used in a more localized, temporary manner.
Why modulate? Composers and songwriters will modulate to create interest, variation, excitement, tension, drama, and change of mood (emotional affection). Modulations are often accompanied by other changes in the musical texture including rhythm, tempo, register, and timbre (instrumentation and orchestration). For our purposes at the moment, we will talk about the technique of modulation through the lens of harmony.
The most basic, most often used, and simplest form of modulating is by that of what is known as the "common chord" or "common tone" method. As the name would imply, when two modes/tonal centers share the same tone(s) or chord(s), composers and songwriters can make use of this commonality as a bridge between them, sounding the chord/tone while in the starting mode and then reinterpreting the scale degree/chord function as if we are in the new mode/key and moving forward in the new mode/key.
Key Takeaways
This chapter elucidates the process of identifying the key and tonal center in tonal music. We explore the importance of establishing a tonal center through specific musical elements, particularly focusing on the intersectional roles of the Circle of Fifths and scale degrees in distinguishing the tonal center and the use of the cadence in firmly establishing the tonality.
- Identifying the Key: Discerning the key of a music piece requires more than just the tonic triad or a repeated chord. It's essential to understand the underlying musical markers via the defining scale degrees as overlapping, common chords in closely related keys can create ambiguity.
- Establishing the Tonal Center: The defining scale degrees in major are [latex](\hat4)[/latex] and [latex](\hat7)[/latex]. In minor, the key and mode is defined by scale degrees [latex](\hat2)[/latex], [latex](\hat4)[/latex], and [latex](\hat6)[/latex].
- Tritone Resolutions: Diatonic tritones in both major and minor modes exhibit specific melodic voice-leading tendencies.
- Role of Cadences: Cadences play a pivotal role in establishing the tonal center and the key by emphasizing the key and mode defining scale degrees, omitting neighboring keys from consideration.
- The Four Cadence Types: Authentic, Deceptive, Half, and Plagal.
- Guidelines for Better Progressions: Culminating general guidelines are provided in summary to help craft better progressions, emphasizing root progressions, chord usage, and voice leading.
Understanding Keys
How do we identify the key of a tonal music piece? Simply sounding the tonic triad or starting and concluding a musical phrase with an identical chord doesn't unequivocally confirm the key. To truly discern the key and establish a robust tonal center, our mind requires specific musical cues to form a contextual understanding. What are these auditory markers?
Consider the keys that are closely related, positioned adjacent to one another on the Circle of Fifths:
It's evident that many chords overlap among these keys. If our aim is to denote C major and we play chords common to G major, ambiguity arises between C and G major. Likewise, playing chords shared between C and F major introduces uncertainty about the key.
Establishing the Tonal Center
To differentiate and firmly set the key, one should play notes exclusive to the desired key, excluding the ones from adjacent keys on the Circle of Fifths. Investigation reveals that in the major mode, scale degrees [latex](\hat4)[/latex] and [latex](\hat7)[/latex] are pivotal for key determination. In minor mode, [latex](\hat4)[/latex] remains crucial, while the leadng-tone [latex](\hat7)[/latex] is derived from the Ascending form. The uniqueness of the minor mode is further reinforced by scale degrees [latex](\hat2)[/latex] and [latex](\hat6)[/latex]. Together, These degree pairs inherently demarcate the diatonic tritone, lending each mode its distinctive sound and attributes.
Cadences are essential here for helping us establish the tonal center and the key, as they not only conclude a harmonic sequence but also distinctly affirm the key by emphasizing the above-discussed defining scale degrees, thereby omitting neighboring keys from the tonal consideration.
Major Mode
In the major mode, the SubDominant and SuperTonic chords, sourced from the SubDominant region, encompass the defining scale degree [latex](\hat4)[/latex]. Meanwhile, chords from the Dominant region embed the leading-tone, scale degree [latex](\hat7)[/latex].
Both the Major-Minor (Dominant) Seventh chord and the Leading-Tone diminished triad encompass scale degrees [latex](\hat4)[/latex] and [latex](\hat7)[/latex]. These chords, by possessing both of the defining scale degrees, robustly fortify the tonal center in major mode.
Minor Mode
The mechanism in the minor mode parallels the major but offers more variety due to the dual nature of modern minor (i.e. the Ascending and Descending forms). Both the SubDominant and SuperTonic encompass key and mode-defining scale degrees [latex](\hat2)[/latex], [latex](\hat4)[/latex], and [latex](\hat6)[/latex]. It's noteworthy that either minor form, with a variable scale degree [latex](\hat6)[/latex]serve equally well in defining the key. In addition, when in the Ascending form, we get a leading-tone scale degree [latex](\hat7)[/latex], also providing a strong sense of definition.
The fully diminished seventh chord, built on the raised scale degree [latex](\hat7)[/latex] from the Ascending (Harmonic) form of minor, and possessing the Natural sixth scale degree, is very potent, encapsulating all minor key and minor mode-defining scale degrees. This chord, akin to the diminished triad, can be thought of as an incomplete, rootless voicing of a ninth chord founded on the Dominant, essentially as a Dominant Seventh with an added flat ninth.
We will come back to the fully diminished seventh chord and explore its many additional possibilities in a later chapter.
Tritone and Scale Degree Melodic Tendencies
Earlier, we delved into the tendencies of the pivot tones in minor mode (tendency tones). Expanding on this concept, the diatonic tritones in both major and minor modes, demarcated by key and mode-defining degrees mentioned above, exhibit specific melodic voice-leading propensities. In both major and minor:
In Natural (Descending) minor:
The Four Cadence Types
There are four primary types of cadences (closes) in tonal music: Authentic, Deceptive, Half, and Plagal.
Authentic
The Authentic cadence is the most definitive cadence, affirming the key and concluding on the Tonic triad. There are two types: Perfect (top voice melody terminates on the Tonic) or Imperfect (top voice melody concludes on another scale degree).
With regard to SATB voice leading, the most conclusive version of the Authentic cadence has the following:
- Each chord of the Cadence in Root Position
- The Dominant chord must be a complete chord with the root sounding (i.e. not a diminished triad or fully diminished seventh).
- Seventh chords, except for the Tonic triad, may be used, provided the voice-leading allows.
Deceptive
The Deceptive cadence seemingly sets up a closure but veers away from the Tonic chord, adding a twist to the listener's expectation. It is often a good way to both reaffirm a tonal center and key, but also provide further momentum in the musical phrase.
Half
The Half cadence offers a moment of pause, culminating on the Dominant chord rather than the Tonic, which then often moves on with a new musical phrase.
Plagal
Finally, we have the Plagal cadence, often termed the "Church" or "Amen" cadence. This cadence omits the Dominant, resulting in a less decisive closure. It is often used as an extension to an ending, after the sounding of an Authentic cadence, the purpose being to provide a more resolute conclusion. This cadence type appears regularly in popular song and contemporary pop, country and folk music.
As with the Authentic cadence, we have two forms of Plagal: Perfect and Imperfect, defined the same way as in the Authentic cadence by way of which scale degree is in the top melodic voice.
The Second Inversion (Six-Four) Triad in the Cadence
The Tonic second inversion triad, or the "Six-Four" chord, is pivotal in cadences. In the cadence. this chord is heard as a Dominant 6-4 dissonant suspension rather than a Tonic chord. How is this possible? The Dominant tone (scale degree [latex](\hat5)[/latex) is in the bass and, as we already know, any bass voice will exerts it's overtone series over the sounding notes above. Thus, the chord, by its very nature, is unstable, and it is quite easy and natural for the upper tones to have a strong pull toward neighboring tones that resolve in a root position chord (with the bass tone as the root), in essence, coming into "focus" and resonance with the harmonic series. This is one reason why we must be careful when using the second inversion triad, its inherent instability and its being at odds with the sounding tones.
We may use this Cadential 6/4 chord in any Authentic cadence, sounding immediately after any pre-Dominant (SubDominant) chord, before the sounding of the Dominant chord. The effect is powerful and creates, as mentioned above, a sense of prolonging and tension, further elevating the final resolution to the Tonic. While it might be used as part of a Deceptive cadence, due to its power and affect, it is not well suited to such a situation unless very strongly warranted by the musical context.
Guidelines for Better Progressions
Root Progressions (in Major and Minor)
- Ascending root progressions, which move a fourth upward or a third downward, can occur anytime. However, avoid repetitive usage.
- Descending progressions, moving a fourth downward or a third upward, should be used when they contribute to an overall upward motion.
- Adjacent progressions sparingly unless specified otherwise. They aren't prohibited.
Chord Usage (in Major and Minor)
Triads
- Triads in root position are versatile and may be used anytime.
- Sixth chords enrich voice leading, especially in outer voices, and prepare dissonances. They may be used anytime (except at the start or end of a musical phrase).
- Use six-four chords cautiously. They're optimal in cadences (i.e. the Cadential 6/4) and with a moving bass-line in stepwise motion. Exercise care in all other situations.
- Diminished triads give a sense of necessity when introducing a chord, and further may be considered as a Dominant seventh chord.
Seventh Chords
- Seventh chords are as versatile as triads when prepared and resolved. They're best used where the seventh demands a specific resolution or treatment.
- Inversions of seventh chords improve voice leading.
The Minor Mode
- The careful handling of the pivot/tendency tones are essential. Incorporate the pivot tones during root progression harmonic progression outlines.
- Staying exclusively in one region (Ascending or Descending) can jeopardize the minor mode's character.
- Transitioning between regions should respect pivot tones (i.e. the four pivot tone guidelines).
- Triads may require inversions to prepare or resolve dissonances, especially with a pivot tone in bass.
- The same rules apply to seventh chords.
- After certain diminished triads, it's generally better to use the Ascending major Dominant chord (V).
- All diminished triads and their seventh chords have a distinct drive due to their dissonance.
- The augmented triad's versatility lets it transition between ascending and descending minor scales.
Voice Leading
- Avoid unmelodic intervals, especially without altered chords.
- Avoid repetitive tone progressions with the same harmony.
- Aim for a high and possibly a low point.
- Use steps and leaps for varied interval sequences, maintaining a mid-range.
- After a significant leap from the mid-range, try to return to it.
- If the mid-range is left stepwise, perhaps balance with an octave leap.
- If repetition is unavoidable, a direction change might help.
- These guidelines apply primarily to soprano and bass. If applied to middle voices, it elevates the overall smoothness. However, focusing on the outer voices is sufficient for now.
EXAMPLES: Triad Inversions and Seventh Chords in the Minor Mode
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RWU EXERCISES
Major and Minor: Chord Connection with Non-Common Chord Tones and Freer Treatment of Dissonance
Using the template below, please do the following:
- Compose at least four (4) harmonic progressions of your choice in SATB style, at least 7 to 12 chords in length:
- At least two (2) in the Major Mode (different keys of your choice) and two (2) in the Minor Mode (different keys of your choice)
- Consider the general guidelines above when constructing your phrases
- Each phrase should be planned out with root progression and harmonic regions in mind.
- Each phrase should have a good mixture of seventh chords and triads.
- Each phrase should contain one Deceptive cadence somewhere within the phrase and end with an Authentic cadence (perfect or imperfect)
- Two of your phrases should end with an Authentic cadence which uses the Cadential Six-Four chord
- Label your cadences with the following text: DC (Deceptive Cadence), IAC (Imperfect Authentic Cadence), PAC (Perfect Authentic Cadence).
- At least two (2) in the Major Mode (different keys of your choice) and two (2) in the Minor Mode (different keys of your choice)
(you must be logged into your Noteflight account to open the activity templates above)
Schoenberg Theory of Harmony Examples
Further Reading
- Schoenberg, Arnold: Theory of Harmony
- Schoenberg, Arnold: Structural Functions of Harmony
Key Takeaways
- Identifying the Key: Discerning the key of a music piece requires more than just the tonic triad or a repeated chord. It's essential to understand the underlying musical markers via the defining scale degrees as overlapping, common chords in closely related keys can create ambiguity.
- Establishing the Tonal Center: The defining scale degrees in major are [latex](\hat4)[/latex] and [latex](\hat7)[/latex]. In minor, the key and mode is defined by scale degrees [latex](\hat2)[/latex], [latex](\hat4)[/latex], and [latex](\hat6)[/latex].
- Tritone Resolutions: Diatonic tritones in both major and minor modes exhibit specific melodic voice-leading tendencies.
- Role of Cadences: Cadences play a pivotal role in establishing the tonal center and the key by emphasizing the key and mode defining scale degrees, omitting neighboring keys from consideration.
- The Four Cadence Types: Authentic, Deceptive, Half, and Plagal.
- Guidelines for Better Progressions: Culminating general guidelines are provided in summary to help craft better progressions, emphasizing root progressions, chord usage, and voice leading.
Understanding Keys
How do we identify the key of a tonal music piece? Simply sounding the tonic triad or starting and concluding a musical phrase with an identical chord doesn't unequivocally confirm the key. To truly discern the key and establish a robust tonal center, our mind requires specific musical cues to form a contextual understanding. What are these auditory markers?
Consider the keys that are closely related, positioned adjacent to one another on the Circle of Fifths:
It's evident that many chords overlap among these keys. If our aim is to denote C major and we play chords common to G major, ambiguity arises between C and G major. Likewise, playing chords shared between C and F major introduces uncertainty about the key.
Establishing the Tonal Center
To differentiate and firmly set the key, one should play notes exclusive to the desired key, excluding the ones from adjacent keys on the Circle of Fifths. Investigation reveals that in the major mode, scale degrees [latex](\hat4)[/latex] and [latex](\hat7)[/latex] are pivotal for key determination. In minor mode, [latex](\hat4)[/latex] remains crucial, while the leadng-tone [latex](\hat7)[/latex] is derived from the Ascending form. The uniqueness of the minor mode is further reinforced by scale degrees [latex](\hat2)[/latex] and [latex](\hat6)[/latex]. Together, These degree pairs inherently demarcate the diatonic tritone, lending each mode its distinctive sound and attributes.
Cadences are essential here for helping us establish the tonal center and the key, as they not only conclude a harmonic sequence but also distinctly affirm the key by emphasizing the above-discussed defining scale degrees, thereby omitting neighboring keys from the tonal consideration.
Major Mode
In the major mode, the SubDominant and SuperTonic chords, sourced from the SubDominant region, encompass the defining scale degree [latex](\hat4)[/latex]. Meanwhile, chords from the Dominant region embed the leading-tone, scale degree [latex](\hat7)[/latex].
Both the Major-Minor (Dominant) Seventh chord and the Leading-Tone diminished triad encompass scale degrees [latex](\hat4)[/latex] and [latex](\hat7)[/latex]. These chords, by possessing both of the defining scale degrees, robustly fortify the tonal center in major mode.
Minor Mode
The mechanism in the minor mode parallels the major but offers more variety due to the dual nature of modern minor (i.e. the Ascending and Descending forms). Both the SubDominant and SuperTonic encompass key and mode-defining scale degrees [latex](\hat2)[/latex], [latex](\hat4)[/latex], and [latex](\hat6)[/latex]. It's noteworthy that either minor form, with a variable scale degree [latex](\hat6)[/latex]serve equally well in defining the key. In addition, when in the Ascending form, we get a leading-tone scale degree [latex](\hat7)[/latex], also providing a strong sense of definition.
The fully diminished seventh chord, built on the raised scale degree [latex](\hat7)[/latex] from the Ascending (Harmonic) form of minor, and possessing the Natural sixth scale degree, is very potent, encapsulating all minor key and minor mode-defining scale degrees. This chord, akin to the diminished triad, can be thought of as an incomplete, rootless voicing of a ninth chord founded on the Dominant, essentially as a Dominant Seventh with an added flat ninth.
We will come back to the fully diminished seventh chord and explore its many additional possibilities in a later chapter.
Tritone and Scale Degree Melodic Tendencies
Earlier, we delved into the tendencies of the pivot tones in minor mode (tendency tones). Expanding on this concept, the diatonic tritones in both major and minor modes, demarcated by key and mode-defining degrees mentioned above, exhibit specific melodic voice-leading propensities. In both major and minor:
In Natural (Descending) minor:
The Four Cadence Types
There are four primary types of cadences (closes) in tonal music: Authentic, Deceptive, Half, and Plagal.
Authentic
The Authentic cadence is the most definitive cadence, affirming the key and concluding on the Tonic triad. There are two types: Perfect (top voice melody terminates on the Tonic) or Imperfect (top voice melody concludes on another scale degree).
With regard to SATB voice leading, the most conclusive version of the Authentic cadence has the following:
- Each chord of the Cadence in Root Position
- The Dominant chord must be a complete chord with the root sounding (i.e. not a diminished triad or fully diminished seventh).
- Seventh chords, except for the Tonic triad, may be used, provided the voice-leading allows.
Deceptive
The Deceptive cadence seemingly sets up a closure but veers away from the Tonic chord, adding a twist to the listener's expectation. It is often a good way to both reaffirm a tonal center and key, but also provide further momentum in the musical phrase.
Half
The Half cadence offers a moment of pause, culminating on the Dominant chord rather than the Tonic, which then often moves on with a new musical phrase.
Plagal
Finally, we have the Plagal cadence, often termed the "Church" or "Amen" cadence. This cadence omits the Dominant, resulting in a less decisive closure. It is often used as an extension to an ending, after the sounding of an Authentic cadence, the purpose being to provide a more resolute conclusion. This cadence type appears regularly in popular song and contemporary pop, country and folk music.
As with the Authentic cadence, we have two forms of Plagal: Perfect and Imperfect, defined the same way as in the Authentic cadence by way of which scale degree is in the top melodic voice.
The Second Inversion (Six-Four) Triad in the Cadence
The Tonic second inversion triad, or the "Six-Four" chord, is pivotal in cadences. In the cadence. this chord is heard as a Dominant 6-4 dissonant suspension rather than a Tonic chord. How is this possible? The Dominant tone (scale degree [latex](\hat5)[/latex) is in the bass and, as we already know, any bass voice will exerts it's overtone series over the sounding notes above. Thus, the chord, by its very nature, is unstable, and it is quite easy and natural for the upper tones to have a strong pull toward neighboring tones that resolve in a root position chord (with the bass tone as the root), in essence, coming into "focus" and resonance with the harmonic series. This is one reason why we must be careful when using the second inversion triad, its inherent instability and its being at odds with the sounding tones.
We may use this Cadential 6/4 chord in any Authentic cadence, sounding immediately after any pre-Dominant (SubDominant) chord, before the sounding of the Dominant chord. The effect is powerful and creates, as mentioned above, a sense of prolonging and tension, further elevating the final resolution to the Tonic. While it might be used as part of a Deceptive cadence, due to its power and affect, it is not well suited to such a situation unless very strongly warranted by the musical context.
Guidelines for Better Progressions
Root Progressions (in Major and Minor)
- Ascending root progressions, which move a fourth upward or a third downward, can occur anytime. However, avoid repetitive usage.
- Descending progressions, moving a fourth downward or a third upward, should be used when they contribute to an overall upward motion.
- Adjacent progressions sparingly unless specified otherwise. They aren't prohibited.
Chord Usage (in Major and Minor)
Triads
- Triads in root position are versatile and may be used anytime.
- Sixth chords enrich voice leading, especially in outer voices, and prepare dissonances. They may be used anytime (except at the start or end of a musical phrase).
- Use six-four chords cautiously. They're optimal in cadences (i.e. the Cadential 6/4) and with a moving bass-line in stepwise motion. Exercise care in all other situations.
- Diminished triads give a sense of necessity when introducing a chord, and further may be considered as a Dominant seventh chord.
Seventh Chords
- Seventh chords are as versatile as triads when prepared and resolved. They're best used where the seventh demands a specific resolution or treatment.
- Inversions of seventh chords improve voice leading.
The Minor Mode
- The careful handling of the pivot/tendency tones are essential. Incorporate the pivot tones during root progression harmonic progression outlines.
- Staying exclusively in one region (Ascending or Descending) can jeopardize the minor mode's character.
- Transitioning between regions should respect pivot tones (i.e. the four pivot tone guidelines).
- Triads may require inversions to prepare or resolve dissonances, especially with a pivot tone in bass.
- The same rules apply to seventh chords.
- After certain diminished triads, it's generally better to use the Ascending major Dominant chord (V).
- All diminished triads and their seventh chords have a distinct drive due to their dissonance.
- The augmented triad's versatility lets it transition between ascending and descending minor scales.
Voice Leading
- Avoid unmelodic intervals, especially without altered chords.
- Avoid repetitive tone progressions with the same harmony.
- Aim for a high and possibly a low point.
- Use steps and leaps for varied interval sequences, maintaining a mid-range.
- After a significant leap from the mid-range, try to return to it.
- If the mid-range is left stepwise, perhaps balance with an octave leap.
- If repetition is unavoidable, a direction change might help.
- These guidelines apply primarily to soprano and bass. If applied to middle voices, it elevates the overall smoothness. However, focusing on the outer voices is sufficient for now.
EXAMPLES: Triad Inversions and Seventh Chords in the Minor Mode
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RWU EXERCISES
Major and Minor: Chord Connection with Non-Common Chord Tones and Freer Treatment of Dissonance
Using the template below, please do the following:
- Compose at least four (4) harmonic progressions of your choice in SATB style, at least 7 to 12 chords in length:
- At least two (2) in the Major Mode (different keys of your choice) and two (2) in the Minor Mode (different keys of your choice)
- Consider the general guidelines above when constructing your phrases
- Each phrase should be planned out with root progression and harmonic regions in mind.
- Each phrase should have a good mixture of seventh chords and triads.
- Each phrase should contain one Deceptive cadence somewhere within the phrase and end with an Authentic cadence (perfect or imperfect)
- Two of your phrases should end with an Authentic cadence which uses the Cadential Six-Four chord
- Label your cadences with the following text: DC (Deceptive Cadence), IAC (Imperfect Authentic Cadence), PAC (Perfect Authentic Cadence).
- At least two (2) in the Major Mode (different keys of your choice) and two (2) in the Minor Mode (different keys of your choice)
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Schoenberg Theory of Harmony Examples
Further Reading
- Schoenberg, Arnold: Theory of Harmony
- Schoenberg, Arnold: Structural Functions of Harmony
